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A P P E N D I X A

Roles and Education of Common Healthcare Professions and Related Careers

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Audiology

Role Audiologists assess, treat, and rehabilitate hearing, balance, and related disorders (ASHA, n.d.c).

Education An undergraduate degree, usually in communication sciences and disorders, is required for admission to an audiology doctoral program.

Audiologist education includes academic coursework and a minimum of 1820 hours of clinical practicum experience supervised by a certified audiologist.

It generally takes 4 years to earn a practice Doctorate in Audiology (AuD) degree (BLS, 2015; ASHA, n.d.d). Programs that offer a PhD have a research component and usually take 6 years postbaccalaureate degree.

Additional Resources

American Board of Audiology (ABA). (n.d.). Board certified in audiology. Retrieved from: http://www.boardofaudiology.org/board-certified-in-audiology/

Related Careers

Audiology Assistant

Performs tasks delegated by and under the supervision of a licensed audiologist. Duties include cleaning and preparing equipment and working with hearing aids. Education is usually on-the-job training. Occupational Hearing Conservationist (OHC)

OHCs “provide training, consultation, audiometric testing and hearing protection fitting in occupational settings such as manufacturing plants, mobile health testing vans, occupational health clinics and other facilities with exposure to high noise levels.”

Successful completion of a 20-hour course is required (CAOHC, 2015).

Dentistry

Role Dentists “diagnose and treat diseases, injuries and malformations of the teeth and mouth; improve a patient’s appearance; perform surgical procedures such as implants, tissue grafts and extractions; educate patients on how to better care for their teeth and prevent oral disease; teach future dentists and dental hygienists; and perform research directed to improving oral health and developing new treatment methods” (ADA, n.d., para 2).

Dentists diagnose and treat problems with “teeth, gums, and related parts of the mouth; provide advice and instruction on taking care of the teeth and gums and on diet choices that affect oral health” (BLS, 2015).

There are nine recognized dental specialty areas (ADA, n.d.).

Education Applicants must take the Dental Admissions Test (DAT) at least a year before applying to dental school. A minimum of 4 years of postbaccalaureate education results in either a Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) or Doctor of

Dental Medicine (DMD) degree. All dental education includes an extensive clinical component along with classroom instruction; some schools require a 1-

to 2-year clinical residency. Specialization requires additional education and clinical experience.

Additional Resources

American Dental Association (ADA). (2015). State licensure for US dentists. Retrieved from: http://www.ada.org/en/education- careers/licensure/state-dental-licensure-for-us-dentists

American Dental Association (ADA). (n.d). What can a career in dentistry offer you? Retrieved from: http://www.ada.org/~/media/ADA/Education%20and%20Careers/Files/01_caries_in_primary_dentition- caufield_b/dentistry_fact.ashx

American Dental Hygiene Association (ADHA). (n.d.). Education and careers. Retrieved from: http://www.adha.org/professional-roles

Commission on Dental Accreditation (CODA). (2015). Program options and descriptions. Retrieved from: http://www.ada.org/en/coda/find-a-program/program-options-and-descriptions

Dental Assistant National Board (DANB). (2016). Exam & certification FAQ’s. Retrieved from: http://www.danb.org/en/Become-Certified/Exam-and-Certification-FAQs.aspx

Related Careers

Dental Hygienist

These professionals “diagnose, plan, implement, evaluate and document treatment for prevention, intervention and control of oral diseases, while practicing in collaboration with other health professionals” (ADHA, n.d., para 3).

Minimum education is an associate’s degree from a Commission on Dental Accreditation (CODA) accredited program (CODA, 2015).

Some entry-level programs lead to a bachelor’s degree. Degree advancement programs award bachelor’s or master’s degrees in dental hygiene. Dental Assistant

Assists dentists, takes dental radiographs, sterilizes and prepares dental instruments and equipment, and communicates instructions to patients.

Educational requirements vary by state, with some requiring an associate’s degree from a CODA-accredited program and others accepting on-the-job training.

Some states require credential verification by passing one of several Dental Assistant National Board (DANB) certification examinations (DANB, 2016).

Diagnostic Medical Sonographer, Cardiovascular Technician, Vascular Technologist

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Role Operates equipment that creates images or conducts tests used by providers in the diagnosis of medical conditions. Some may assist in surgical procedures by providing imaging (BLS, 2015).

Education To prepare for a sonography program, high school students should take mathematics, anatomy and physiology, and physics (BLS, 2015).

Most require an associate’s degree education with specific training and clinical experience, but some 1-year certificate programs exist.

Bachelor’s degree programs are available.

Additional Resources

American Registry for Diagnostic Medical Sonography (ARDMS). (2015). Examinations and certifications. Retrieved from: http://www.ardms.org/Discover-ARDMS/examinations-and-certifications/Pages/default.aspx

Medicine

Role To diagnose and treat injuries or illnesses. Physicians: Examine patients; take medical histories; prescribe medications; order, perform, and interpret diagnostic tests;

counsel patients on diet, hygiene, and preventive health care. Surgeons: Operate on patients to treat injuries, such as broken bones; diseases, such as cancerous tumors; and

deformities, such as cleft palates (BLS, 2015). There are 120 medical specialties and subspecialties (AAMC, 2015a).

Education Medical degree, internship, and residency Medical school applicants must take the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) and undergo an interview process and

criminal background check (AACOM, 2015). The Medical Doctor (MD) degree is awarded after successful completion of 4 years of medical school and the Doctor of

Osteopathy (DO) degree is awarded by schools of Osteopathic Medicine. After earning the MD or DO degree, additional schooling is required before a physician is able to practice independently: 3

to 5 years of internship and residency, and 1 to 3 additional years of fellowship, depending on the medical specialty (AMA, 2015; AACOM, 2015).

Additional Resources

American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine (AACOM). (2015). Osteopathic medical education information book 2016. Chevy Chase, MD: Author.

American Medical Association (AMA). (2015). Program options and descriptions. Retrieved from: http://www.ama- assn.org/ama/pub/education-careers/becoming-physician/medical-licensure/state-medical-boards.page

Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC). (n.d). Using MCAT data in medical student selection. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from: https://aamc-orange.global.ssl.fastly.net/production/media/filer_public/7c/fb/7cfb5f43-f9cd-4a5a- bdad-36e735b5844a/mcatstudentselectionguide.pdf

Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC). (2015a). Careers in Medicine. Retrieved from: https://www.aamc.org/cim/specialty/list/us/

Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC). (2015b). The official guide to medical school admissions (2015 edition). Washington, DC: Author.

United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE). (2015). Retrieved from: http://www.usmle.org/

Nursing-Professional (RN)

Role Nursing is “the protection, promotion, and optimization of health and abilities, prevention of illness and injury, facilitation of healing, alleviation of suffering through the diagnosis and treatment of human response, and advocacy in the care of individuals, families, groups, communities, and populations” (ANA, 2015).

Nurses provide and coordinate care, educate patients and the public about health, and provide emotional support to patients and their family members (BLS, 2015).

Education In the United States, there are three educational pathways to becoming a registered nurse (RN). All require a high school diploma or equivalent to apply.

The most common pathway is the associate’s degree program, which consists of 2 to 3 years of education at a community college that grants an associate’s degree in nursing (ADN).

RN to BSN Completion Programs exist through which ADN nurses can complete their BSN degree in 1 to 3 years. The 4-year Bachelor of Science in Nursing degree (BSN) is preferred by most employers and is required for entry into

master’s and doctoral programs in nursing. Accelerated or second-degree programs are available for students who have completed a bachelor’s degree in another

discipline and prerequisite physical and social science courses. The least common path to becoming a registered nurse is through a diploma program. Nursing skills are taught, but

college credit is generally not received. Globally, the BSN degree is the most common educational preparation for nurses. There are many specialties in nursing, all of which require certification by a specific specialty organization or the American

Nurses Credentialing Center (AACN) (ANA, 2015).

Additional Resources

Accreditation Commission for Education in Nursing (ACEN). (2013). Retrieved from: http://www.acenursing.org/mission- purpose-goals/

Related Careers

Licensed Practical and Licensed Vocational Nurse (LPN and LVN)

Provide basic nursing care under the supervision of an RN or physician. Requires state licensure.

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They receive training in nondegree vocational programs that take 1 to 2 years to build understanding of responsibilities tailored to individual patients (McNaughton et al., 2013).

Assistant and Certified Home Health Aide

Under the supervision of an RN, they provide basic care in healthcare facilities or homes. These occupations require training in state-approved training programs that take several weeks and do not involve college

education (BLS, 2015).

Nursing–Advanced Practice (APN)

Role There are four types of advanced practice registered nurses (APRNs): nurse practitioner (NP), certified nurse midwife (CNM), certified registered nurse anesthetist (CRNA), and clinical nurse specialist.

APRNs work independently or in collaboration with physicians. They prescribe medications, order medical tests, and diagnose health problems (BLS, 2015). They provide primary and preventive care or may specialize in the care of specific populations or in the treatment of

certain diseases. CRNAs administer anesthesia and are responsible for anesthesia-related care before, during, and after a variety of

procedures, including surgery. CNMs specialize in the care of women, focusing on gynecological care, family planning, care during and after pregnancy,

and labor (BLS, 2015). CNSs are expert clinicians in a specialty area of nursing practice related to a population, setting, disease, or medical

subspecialty, type of care, or type of problem (NACNS, 2015). The terminal practice degree is the Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP), and the terminal research degree in the discipline of

nursing is the PhD.

Education All APRNs require a minimum of a Master of Science in Nursing (MSN) or a Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP) degree. The DNP is a practice doctorate that may eventually replace the MSN degree for clinical APRNs. Programs exist for students to earn the BSN through MSN or DNP. A BSN and a valid RN license are required to apply for graduate education in nursing. To become a CRNA, a nurse must have a BSN and 1 year of acute care experience, and many programs schools require

critical care experience and certification for entrance to a CRNA program (AANA, 2015). All APRN programs consist of a combination of classroom instruction and supervised clinical experience. APRN programs usually take 2 to 3 years to complete after receiving the BSN degree.

Additional Resources

American Nurses Association (ANA). (2015). What is nursing? Retrieved from: http://www.bls.gov/ooh/healthcare/nurse- anesthetists-nurse-midwives-and-nurse-practitioners.htm

American Nurses Association. (n.d.). NP and CNS certification rulemaking guide. Retrieved from: http://www.nursingworld.org/rulemakingguide

American Association of Nurse Anesthetists (AANA). (2015). Become a CRNA. Retrieved from: http://www.aana.com/ceandeducation/becomeacrna/Pages/default.aspx

National Association of Clinical Nurse Specialists (NACNS). (2015). Retrieved from: http://www.nacns.org/html/cns-faqs.php

Nutrition/Dietetics

Role Registered dietitian nutritionists (RDNs) or registered dietitians (RDs) are experts in food and nutrition (AND, 2015a) and advise people regarding what to eat to manage disease, promote a healthy lifestyle, or achieve specific health-related goals (BLS, 2015).

Education A bachelor’s degree is required from a program accredited by The Accreditation Council for Education in Nutrition and Dietetics (ACEND) of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (AND).

There are two types of programs. One is a coordinated program that combines academic and supervised practical experience and leads to either a

bachelor’s or master’s degree. The other is a 4-year baccalaureate program that requires participation in an ACEND-accredited Dietetic Internship

Program or Individualized Supervised Practice Pathway (ISPP) after graduation (AND, 2015a). The degree earned may be a Bachelor of Arts (BA), Bachelor of Science (BS), or a BA of Public Health, depending on the

school and program (BLS, 2015). Advanced practice internships are available.

Additional Resources

Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (AND). (2015a). Frequently asked questions about careers in dietetics. Retrieved from: http://www.eatrightacend.org/ACEND/content.aspx?id=6442485476

Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (AND). (2015b). What is a dietetic technician, registered? Retrieved from: http://www.eatrightpro.org/resources/about-us/what-is-an-rdn-and-dtr/what-is-a-dietetic-technician-registered

Board for Certification of Nutrition Specialists (BCNS). (2015). The certified nutrition specialist credential. Retrieved from: http://www.nutritionspecialists.org/cns/certified-nutrition-specialist®-cns®-credential

Commission on Dietetic Registration (CDR). (2015). Who is a registered dietician? Retrieved from: https://www.cdrnet.org/about/who-is-a-registered-dietitian-rd

Related Careers

Nutritionist

The role and definition of “nutritionist” is variable (BLS, 2015; AND, 2015a). A bachelor’s degree is usually required, with special training in nutrition (BLS, 2015).

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Many states regulate the practice of nutritionists in some way, such as licensure or state registration or certification, and restrict the usage of certain titles.

Dietetic Technician

Dietetic technicians are “trained at the technical level of nutrition and dietetics practice for the delivery of safe, culturally competent, quality food and nutrition services” (AND, 2015b, para. 1) and work under supervision of registered or licensed dieticians.

Education requires at least an associate’s degree and completion of an ACEND-accredited Dietetic Technician Program that includes 450 hours of supervised practice.

Occupational Therapy (OT)

Role Occupational therapists focus on the therapeutic use of everyday activities to help people function in all of their environments (AOTA, n.d.c).

Occupational therapists help injured, ill, or disabled people develop, recover, or improve skills needed to perform activities of daily living and work (BLS, 2015).

Education A master’s degree in occupational therapy is required. Students who enter with a bachelor’s degree can earn their master’s degree (MSOT) in 2 to 3 years or a practice doctorate

(OTD) in 3 to 5 years depending on the program.

Additional Resources

American Occupational Association (AOTA). (n.d.a). About physical therapy. Retrieved from: http://www.aota.org/About- Occupational-Therapy/Professionals.aspx

American Occupational Association (AOTA). (n.d.b). FAQ on OT career and planning. Retrieved from: http://www.aota.org/Education-Careers/Considering-OT-Career/FAQs/Planning.aspx

American Occupational Association (AOTA). (n.d.c). How to get a license. Retrieved from: http://www.aota.org/Practice/Manage/HowTo.aspx

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). (2015). Occupational outlook handbook; Healthcare occupations: 2015-16 edition. Washington, DC: US Department of Labor. Retrieved from: http://www.bls.gov/ooh/healthcare/home.htm

Council for the Accreditation in Occupational Hearing Conservation (CAOHC). (2015). About CAOHC. Retrieved from: http://www.caohc.org/about-caohc

Related Careers

OT Assistant

An OT assistant is a graduate of an accredited OT Assistant program and must pass a national certification examination.

OT Aide

OT aides usually receive on-the-job training and are not eligible for certification or licensure (AOTA, n.d.c).

Pharmacy

Role “Pharmacist responsibilities include a range of care for patients, from dispensing medications to monitoring patient health and progress to optimize their response to medication therapies” (AACP, 2015b, para. 1).

Pharmacists are medication experts who educate patients on the use of medications and educate and advise health professionals on medication therapy.

Pharmacists have expertise in the composition of drugs, ensure drug purity and strength, and make sure that drugs do not interact harmfully (AACP, 2015a).

Education Students may enter pharmacy programs to earn the Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) degree after 2 years of specific undergraduate study; some schools require a 4-year bachelor’s degree; most students enter after 3 to 4 years of college.

Some programs accept students directly from high school and prepare them for pharmacy school through undergraduate study.

Accelerated programs are available for those with bachelor’s degrees in the health sciences. Applicants may need to take the Pharmacy Admission Test (PCAT). The PharmD takes 4 years to complete after entry to a

school of pharmacy. Clinical components of pharmacy education differ among programs. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists offers specialty certification in pharmacotherapy, ambulatory care,

oncology, pediatric care, and critical care (ASHP, 2014). Most specialties require a 1- to 2-year residency. Some states require Health System Pharmacists to complete a

postgraduate residency. Postgraduate master or PhD programs are available after the PharmD.

Additional Resources

American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP). (2015a). Pharm-D curriculum. Retrieved from: http://www.pharmcas.org/preparing-to-apply/about-pharmacy/pharmd-curriculum/

American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP). (2015b). Table 5 First year PharmD class. Retrieved from: http://www.aacp.org/resources/student/pharmacyforyou/admissions/admissionrequirements/Documents/Table%205.pdf

American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP). Role of a pharmacist. Retrieved from: http://www.pharmcas.org/preparing-to-apply/about-pharmacy/role-of-a-pharmacist/

American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (ASHP). (2014). Certification resources. Retrieved from: http://www.ashpcertifications.org/

American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (ASHP). (2015). About technicians. Retrieved from: http://www.ashp.org/menu/PracticePolicy/ResourceCenters/Pharmacy-Technicians/About-